The Orbitofrontal Cortex and Reward

The primate orbitofrontal cortex contains the secondary taste cortex, in which the reward value of taste is represented. It also contains the secondary and tertiary olfactory cortical areas, in which information about the identity and also about the reward value of odors is represented. The orbitofrontal cortex also receives information about the sight of objects and faces from the temporal lobe cortical visual areas, and neurons in it learn and reverse the visual stimulus to which they respond when the association of the visual stimulus with a primary reinforcing stimulus (such as a taste reward) is reversed. However, the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in representing negative reinforcers (punishers) too, such as aversive taste, and in rapid stimulus–reinforcement association learning for both positive and negative primary reinforcers. In complementary neuroimaging studies in humans it is being found that areas of the orbitofrontal cortex (and connected subgenual cingulate cortex) are activated by pleasant touch, by painful touch, by rewarding and aversive taste, and by odor. Damage to the orbitofrontal cortex in humans can impair the learning and reversal of stimulus– reinforcement associations, and thus the correction of behavioral responses when these are no longer appropriate because previous reinforcement contingencies change. This evidence thus shows that the orbitofrontal cortex is involved in decoding and representing some primary reinforcers such as taste and touch; in learning and reversing associations of visual and other stimuli to these primary reinforcers; and in controlling and correcting reward-related and punishment-related behavior, and thus in emotion.




Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing some of the gustatory, olfactory, visual and somatosensory pathways to the orbitofrontal cortex, and some of the outputs of the orbitofrontal cortex. The secondary taste cortex and the secondary olfactory cortex are within the orbitofrontal cortex. V1, primary visual cortex. V4, visual cortical area V4. Abbreviations: as, arcuate sulcus; cc, corpus callosum; cf, calcarine fissure; cgs, cingulate sulcus; cs, central sulcus; ls, lunate sulcus; ios, inferior occipital sulcus; mos, medial orbital sulcus; os, orbital sulcus; ots, occipito-temporal sulcus; ps, principal sulcus; rhs, rhinal sulcus; sts, superior temporal sulcus; lf, lateral (or Sylvian) fissure (which has been opened to reveal the insula); A, amygdala; INS, insula; T, thalamus; TE (21), inferior temporal visual cortex; TA (22), superior temporal auditory association cortex; TF and TH, parahippocampal cortex; TG, temporal pole cortex; 12, 13, 11, orbitofrontal cortex; 35, perirhinal cortex; 51, olfactory (prepyriform and periamygdaloid) cortex. Most of the forward projections shown in this diagram have corresponding backprojections (Rolls and Treves, 1998).

Edmund T. Rolls
The Orbitofrontal Cortex and Reward
Cereb. Cortex 10: 284-294.

http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/284

Neurogenesis in adult dentate gyrus: Evidence of mitosis in differentiated granule cells following spatial learning

An increasing body of evidence has been presented to demonstrate the idea that neurogenesis occurs only during development and ends before puberty is erroneous. In adult vertebrate brain, neurogenesis persists throughout life mainly in two discrete regions – the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus (DG) and the olfactory bulb. Neurogenesis has been shown by detection of tagged thymidine analogues which are incorporated into the S phase of the cell cycle, but these
may also detect repaired DNA in post-mitotic neurons and/or an abortive cell cycle. Recent retroviral labelling has shown that neuronal progenitors/neuroblasts divide and produce functional neurons. However, it is unclear whether differentiated granule cells (GC) in the DG can divide and give rise to another GC. We have used three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of serial ultrathin sections to identify and reconstruct GC, thereby illustrating individual mitotic elements and phases. We report that functional GC with clear synaptic specializations re-enter the cell cycle demonstrating for the first time that newly generated neurons within the DG can arise not only from stem cell precursors, but also from differentiated GC.

Neurogenesis in adult dentate gyrus: Evidence of mitosis in differentiated granule cells following spatial learning
V.Popov, J.J.Rodriguez, H.A.Davies, I.V.Kraev, D.Banks, M.I.Cordero, C.Sandi and M.G.Stewart
18TH NATIONAL MEETING OF THE BRITISH NEUROSCIENCE ASSOCIATION 2005

Functional Heterogeneity in Human Olfactory Cortex: An Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study

Studies of patients with focal brain injury indicate that smell perception involves caudal orbitofrontal and medial temporal cortices, but a more precise functional organization has not been characterized. In addition, although it is believed that odors are potent triggers of emotion, support for an anatomical association is scant. We sought to define the neural substrates of human olfactory information processing and determine how these are modulated by affective properties of odors. We used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in an olfactory version of a classical conditioning paradigm, whereby neutral faces were paired with pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant odors, under 50% reinforcement. By comparing paired (odor/face) and unpaired (face only) conditions, odor-evoked neural activations could be isolated specifically. In primary olfactory (piriform) cortex, spatially and temporally dissociable responses were identified along a rostrocaudal axis. A nonhabituating response in posterior piriform cortex was tuned to all odors, whereas activity in anterior piriform cortex reflected sensitivity to odor affect. Bilateral amygdala activation was elicited by all odors, regardless of valence. In posterior orbitofrontal cortex, neural responses evoked by pleasant and unpleasant odors were segregated within medial and lateral segments, respectively. The results indicate functional heterogeneity in areas critical to human olfaction. They also show that brain regions mediating emotional processing are differentially activated by odor valence, providing evidence for a close anatomical coupling between olfactory and emotional processes.

Jay A. Gottfried, Ralf Deichmann, Joel S. Winston, and Raymond J. Dolan
Functional Heterogeneity in Human Olfactory Cortex: An Event-Related Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study
J. Neurosci. 22: 10819-10828; doi:

http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/22/24/10819

The Amygdaloid Complex: Anatomy and Physiology

A converging body of literature over the last 50 years has implicated the amygdala in assigning emotional significance or value to sensory information. In particular, the amygdala has been shown to be an essential component of the circuitry underlying fear-related responses. Disorders in the processing of fear-related information are likely to be the underlying cause of some anxiety disorders in humans such as posttraumatic stress. The amygdaloid complex is a group of more than 10 nuclei that are located in the midtemporal lobe. These nuclei can be distinguished both on cytoarchitectonic and connectional grounds. Anatomical tract tracing studies have shown that these nuclei have extensive intranuclear and internuclear connections. The afferent and efferent connections of the amygdala have also been mapped in detail, showing that the amygdaloid complex has extensive connections with cortical and subcortical regions. Analysis of fear conditioning in rats has suggested that long-term synaptic plasticity of inputs to the amygdala underlies the acquisition and perhaps storage of the fear memory. In agreement with this proposal, synaptic plasticity has been demonstrated at synapses in the amygdala in both in vitro and in vivo studies. In this review, we examine the anatomical and physiological substrates proposed to underlie amygdala function.




FIG. 1. Nuclei of the rat amygdaloid complex. Coronal sections are drawn from rostral (A) to caudal (D). The different nuclei are divided into three groups as described in text. Areas in blue form part of the basolateral group, areas in yellow are the cortical group, and areas in green form the centromedial group. ABmc, accessory basal magnocellular subdivision; ABpc, accessory basal parvicellular subdivision; Bpc, basal nucleus magnocellular subdivision; e.c., external capsule; Ladl, lateral amygdala medial subdivision; Lam, lateral amygdala medial subdivision; Lavl, lateral amygdala ventrolateral subdivision; Mcd, medial amygdala dorsal subdivision; Mcv, medial amygdala ventral subdivision; Mr, medial amygdala rostral subdivision; Pir, piriform cortex; s.t., stria terminalis. See text for other definitions.




Sah, P., E. S. L. Faber, M. Lopez de Armentia, and J. Power.
The Amygdaloid Complex: Anatomy and Physiology.
Physiol Rev 83: 803–834, 2003; 10.1152/physrev.00002.2003.

http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/83/3/803

Central Olfactory Connections in the Microsmatic Marmoset Monkey (Callithrix jacchus)

The mammalian primary olfactory system consists of a set of different telencephalic structures, including paleo-, archi-, periarchi- and mesocortical components. We present the first characterisation of the normal and connectional anatomy of the primary olfactory cortex of the common marmoset, a microsmatic simian species increasingly used in primate research. The centrifugal and centripetal bulbar projections were determined by injections of the anterograde and retrograde tracer wheat germ agglutinin-conjugated horseradish peroxidase and fluorescent dyes into the ipsilateral main olfactory bulb. The efferent projections of the marmoset bulb are organised entirely ipsilaterally and are established via a rudimentary medial olfactory tract and the dominant lateral olfactory tract. Target areas are the anterior olfactory nucleus, the entire prepiriform cortex, ventral tenia tecta, periamygdaloid cortex and the rostral part of the entorhinal cortex. The bulbar axons predominantly terminate in the outer part of layer I. The anterior olfactory nucleus receives a weak additional input within layer II and III, which is not found in macrosmatic rodents. Further anterograde labelling was found in the endopiriform nucleus deep under the prepiriform cortex and within an anterolateral strip of the olfactory tubercle. However, control injections into the olfactory tubercle suggest that the marmoset olfactory tubercle receives a bisynaptic olfactory input only. Retrograde labelling after bulb injections revealed that, except for the olfactory tubercle, all primary olfactory cortices contributed to an ipsilateral bulbopetal feedback projection. Like in rodents, the only bulbopetal projection organised bilaterally in the marmoset is maintained by the anterior olfactory nucleus. With few exceptions, the projections of the marmoset olfactory brain are organised similarly to that of the macaque monkey or those of macrosmatic species.

David Liebetanz, Michael Andreas Nitsche, Christoph Fromm, Christian Karl Hermann Reyher
Central Olfactory Connections in the Microsmatic Marmoset Monkey (Callithrix jacchus)
Cells Tissues Organs 2002;172:53-69 (DOI: 10.1159/000064386)

http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=ShowFulltext&ProduktNr=224197&Ausgabe=228534&ArtikelNr=64386

New Features of Connectivity in Piriform Cortex Visualized by Intracellular Injection of Pyramidal Cells Suggest that "Primary" Olfactory Cortex ...

Associational connections of pyramidal cells in rat posterior piriform cortex were studied by direct visualization of axons stained by intracellular injection in vivo. The results revealed that individual cells have widespread axonal arbors that extend over nearly the full length of the cerebral hemisphere. Within piriform cortex these arbors are highly distributed with no regularly arranged patchy concentrations like those associated with the columnar organization in other primary sensory areas (i.e., where periodically arranged sets of cells have common response properties, inputs, and outputs). A lack of columnar organization was also indicated by a marked disparity in the intrinsic projection patterns of neighboring injected cells. Analysis of axonal branching patterns, bouton distributions, and dendritic arbors suggested that each pyramidal cell makes a small number of synaptic contacts on a large number (>1000) of other cells in piriform cortex at disparate locations. Axons from individual pyramidal cells also arborize extensively within many neighboring cortical areas, most of which send strong projections back to piriform cortex. These include areas involved in high-order functions in prefrontal, amygdaloid, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortex, to which there are few projections from other primary sensory areas. Our results suggest that piriform cortex performs correlative functions analogous to those in association areas of neocortex rather than those typical of primary sensory areas with which it has been traditionally classed. Findings from other studies suggest that the olfactory bulb subserves functions performed by primary areas in other sensory systems.






Figure 1. Axon from a single pyramidal cell in layer II of rat piriform cortex. Note that axon branches extend over nearly the entire length of the cerebral hemisphere and are widely distributed within piriform cortex and other olfactory and nonolfactory areas. The SP cell in posterior piriform cortex was stained by intracellular injection of biotinylated dextran amine in vivo, and the axon was reconstructed through serial sections with a computer microscope system. A, Spatial distribution of axon branches in surface view. The inset at top right shows the illustrated portion of the rat brain (dashed rectangle) and orientation (45° upward rotation); the hatched area is piriform cortex, and the shaded area is lateral olfactory tract. APC, Anterior piriform cortex; PPC, posterior piriform cortex. B, Depth distribution of same axon within PPC. View is parallel to layers after 90° rotation; rostral is at left as in A; branches outside PPC have been removed; size scale is expanded relative to that in A. Roman numerals indicate layers: Ib, association fiber zone in layer I (molecular layer); IIIs, IIId, superficial and deep portions of layer III; dotted lines, superficial and deep borders of layer II (compact cell body layer). Open arrowheads mark branch points for axon collaterals that ascend to layer I. Open arrows in A and B indicate cell body; dendritic tree is not illustrated (Fig. 3). Ant, Anterior; ctx, cortex; nuc, nucleus; olfac, olfactory.

Dawn M. G. Johnson, Kurt R. Illig, Mary Behan, and Lewis B. Haberly
New Features of Connectivity in Piriform Cortex Visualized by Intracellular Injection of Pyramidal Cells Suggest that "Primary" Olfactory Cortex Functions Like "Association" Cortex in Other Sensory Systems
J. Neurosci. 20: 6974-6982; doi:

http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/20/18/6974

Central olfactory connections in the macaque monkey

The connections between the olfactory bulb, primary olfactory cortex, and olfactory related areas of the orbital cortex were defined in macaque monkeys with a combination of anterograde and retrograde axonal tracers and electrophysiological recording. Anterograde tracers placed into the olfactory bulb labeled axons in eight primary olfactory cortical areas: the anterior olfactory nucleus, piriform cortex, ventral tenia tecta, olfactory tubercle, anterior cortical nucleus of the amygdala, periamygdaloid cortex, and olfactory division of the entorhinal cortex. The bulbar axons terminate in the outer part of layer I throughout these areas and are most dense in areas that are close to the lateral olfactory tract. Labeled axons also were found in the superficial part of nucleus of the horizontal diagonal band. Retrograde tracers injected into the olfactory bulb labeled cells in the nucleus of the diagonal band and in all of the primary olfactory cortical areas except the olfactory tubercle. Electrical stimulation of the olfactory bulb evoked short-latency unit responses and a characteristic field wave in the primary olfactory cortex. Multiunit activity in layer II tended to be of shorter latency than that in layer III and the endopiriform nucleus. Associational connections within the primary olfactory cortex were demonstrated with anterograde tracer injections into the piriform cortex and the entorhinal cortex. Injections into the piriform cortex near the lateral olfactory tract labeled axons in the deep part of layer I of many primary olfactory areas, but especially in areas near the tract. An injection into the rostral entorhinal cortex, distant to the lateral olfactory tract, labeled a complementary distribution of axons in deep layer I of olfactory areas medial and caudoventral to the tract. This organization resembles that reported in the primary olfactory cortex of the rat [Luskin and Price (1983) J. Comp. Neurol. 216:264-291]. The anterograde tracer injections into the piriform cortex and retrograde tracer injections into the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and rostral insula label connections from the primary olfactory cortex to nine areas in the caudal orbital cortex, including the agranular insula areas Iam, Iai, Ial, Iapm, and Iapl and areas 14c, 25, 13a, and 13m. The piriform cortex projects most heavily to layer I of these areas. Only Iam, Iapm, and 13a receive a substantial projection to the deeper layers. Areas Iam, Iapm, and 13a were also the only areas that responded with multiunit action potentials to olfactory bulb stimulation in anesthetized animals.

Central olfactory connections in the macaque monkey
Carmichael ST, Clugnet MC, Price JL.
J Comp Neurol 1994 Aug 15;346(3):403-34

http://brainmeta.com/neuroanat/a16.html